How Alternative Certification Affects New Teacher Effectiveness Dissertation
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TABLE OF CONTENTSPageLIST OF TABLES ………………………………………………………………….LIST OF FIGURES ………………………………………………………………….ChaptersI. INTRODUCTION ………………………………………………….Overview ………………………………………………………….Statement of the Problem ………………………………………….Purpose of the Study ………………………………………………….Conceptual Framework ………………………………………….Research Questions ………………………………………………….Rationale for the Study ………………………………………….Significance of the Study ………………………………………….Definition of Key Terms ………………………………………….Organization of the Study ………………………………………….Summary ………………………………………………………….2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ………………………………….Overview ………………………………………………………….Background ………………………………………………………….Conceptual Framework ………………………………………….Summary …………………………………………………………..3. METHODOLOGY …………………………………………………..Overview ………………………………………………………….Research Design ………………………………………………….Participants …………………………………………………………..Instrumentation …………………………………………………..Data Collection …………………………………………………..Data Analysis …………………………………………………………..Limitations of the Study ……………………………………………Summary …………………………………………………………….AbstractToday, education in the United States is faced with the triple whammy of a critical shortage of qualified teachers, high rates of attrition for new teachers and inadequate resources to support existing public schools. Therefore, the overarching purpose of this study is to help educational leaders identify and develop best practices to help both alternatively and traditionally certified teachers improve academic outcomes while reducing unplanned turnover rates by new teachers leaving the profession entirely. This purpose is aligned with the author’s field of study which involves teachers’ perceptions, attitudes, knowledge and their ability to improve academic outcomes for their students. The focus of this study is the analysis of both traditionally and alternatively certified teachers’ efficacy beliefs toward serving students to improve student outcomes is my focus. Additionally, my research interest involves helping educational leaders determine the best recruitment and retention methods for teachers. In part, the research will examine specific recruitment and retention practices to determine effectiveness in reducing attrition rates.CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTIONOverviewAt present, there are approximately 3.6 million public and private school teachers in the United States today (About NTSA, 2018) responsible for about 50.7 million school children in elementary and secondary schools (Fast facts, 2018). The economic costs of public school education in the United States are staggering, and the country currently spends an average of around $12,300 per elementary and secondary public school student each year, amounting to about $620 billion in federal and state spending annually (Pflaum, 2016). At present, the vast majority (90%) of these hundreds of billions of dollars is provided by the several states, with the federal government contributing the remaining 10% (Pflaum, 2016). Indeed, the United States spends more than almost any other industrialized country in the world today, trailing only Switzerland and Norway in per student expenditures (Plfaum, 2016). Unfortunately, the return on these enormous investments in taxpayer resources has been mediocre at best and absolutely dismal at worst, an issue that forms the problem of interest to this study which is discussed further below.Statement of the ProblemToday, the United States is in an education crisis due to the convergence of several trends that have combined to create a perfect storm of challenges. For instance, depending on the source, between 20% and 50% of all new teachers in the United States leave the profession within 5 years and a significant percentage within the first year, due in part to low pay and overcrowded classrooms but also to a lack of preparedness for the entering the profession (Fensterwald, 2015). These pronounced rates of departure are far higher than for other professions, and the negative impact of these trends has been felt in the majority of public elementary and secondary schools across the country, but most especially already low-performing schools that are confronted with a steady parade of new teachers who do not stay at schools long enough to make a substantive difference in their students’ academic outcomes (Carroll & Fulton, 2009). Indeed, a seminal study by Darling-Hammond, Chung and Frelow (2002) found that teachers who felt unprepared left the profession at fully twice the rates of teachers who felt prepared to enter the classroom.This lack of preparedness has further exacerbated the numerous difficulties that many…
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…TABLEOFCONTENTSPageLISTOFTABLES………………………………………………………………….LISTOFFIGURES………………………………………………………………….ChaptersI.INTRODUCTION………………………………………………….Overview………………………………………………………….StatementoftheProblem………………………………………….PurposeoftheStudy………………………………………………….ConceptualFramework………………………………………….ResearchQuestions………………………………………………….RationalefortheStudy………………………………………….SignificanceoftheStudy………………………………………….DefinitionofKeyTerms………………………………………….OrganizationoftheStudy………………………………………….Summary………………………………………………………….2.REVIEWOFTHELITERATURE………………………………….Overview………………………………………………………….Background………………………………………………………….ConceptualFramework………………………………………….Summary…………………………………………………………..3.METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………..Overview………………………………………………………….ResearchDesign………………………………………………….Participants…………………………………………………………..Instrumentation…………………………………………………..DataCollection…………………………………………………..DataAnalysis…………………………………………………………..LimitationsoftheStudy……………………………………………Summary…………………………………………………………….AbstractToday,educationintheUnitedStatesisfacedwiththetriplewhammyofacriticalshortageofqualifiedteachers,highratesofattritionfornewteachersandinadequateresourcestosupportexistingpublicschools.Therefore,theoverarchingpurposeofthisstudyistohelpeducationalleadersidentifyanddevelopbestpracticestohelpbothalternativelyandtraditionallycertifiedteachersimproveacademicoutcomeswhilereducingunplannedturnoverratesbynewteachersleavingtheprofessionentirely.Thispurposeisalignedwiththeauthor’sfieldofstudywhichinvolvesteachers’perceptions,attitudes,knowledgeandtheirabilitytoimproveacademicoutcomesfortheirstudents.Thefocusofthisstudyistheanalysisofbothtraditionallyandalternativelycertifiedteachers’efficacybeliefstowardservingstudentstoimprovestudentoutcomesismyfocus.Additionally,myresearchinterestinvolveshelpingeducationalleadersdeterminethebestrecruitmentandretentionmethodsforteachers.Inpart,theresearchwillexaminespecificrecruitmentandretentionpracticestodetermineeffectivenessinreducingattritionrates.CHAPTERONE:INTRODUCTIONOverviewAtpresent,thereareapproximately3.6millionpublicandprivateschoolteachersintheUnitedStatestoday(AboutNTSA,2018)responsibleforabout50.7millionschoolchildreninelementaryandsecondaryschools(Fastfacts,2018).TheeconomiccostsofpublicschooleducationintheUnitedStatesarestaggering,andthecountrycurrentlyspendsanaverageofaround$12,300perelementaryandsecondarypublicschoolstudenteachyear,amountingtoabout$620billioninfederalandstatespendingannually(Pflaum,2016).Atpresent,thevastmajority(90%)ofthesehundredsofbillionsofdollarsisprovidedbytheseveralstates,withthefederalgovernmentcontributingtheremaining10%(Pflaum,2016).Indeed,theUnitedStatesspendsmorethanalmostanyotherindustrializedcountryintheworldtoday,trailingonlySwitzerlandandNorwayinperstudentexpenditures(Plfaum,2016).Unfortunately,thereturnontheseenormousinvestmentsintaxpayerresourceshasbeenmediocreatbestandabsolutelydismalatworst,anissuethatformstheproblemofinteresttothisstudywhichisdiscussedfurtherbelow.StatementoftheProblemToday,theUnitedStatesisinaneducationcrisisduetotheconvergenceofseveraltrendsthathavecombinedtocreateaperfectstormofchallenges.Forinstance,dependingonthesource,between20%and50%ofallnewteachersintheUnitedStatesleavetheprofessionwithin5yearsandasignificantpercentagewithinthefirstyear,dueinparttolowpayandovercrowdedclassroomsbutalsotoalackofpreparednessfortheenteringtheprofession(Fensterwald,2015).Thesepronouncedratesofdeparturearefarhigherthanforotherprofessions,andthenegativeimpactofthesetrendshasbeenfeltinthemajorityofpublicelementaryandsecondaryschoolsacrossthecountry,butmostespeciallyalreadylow-performingschoolsthatareconfrontedwithasteadyparadeofnewteacherswhodonotstayatschoolslongenoughtomakeasubstantivedifferenceintheirstudents’academicoutcomes(Carroll&Fulton,2009).Indeed,aseminalstudybyDarling-Hammond,ChungandFrelow(2002)foundthatteacherswhofeltunpreparedlefttheprofessionatfullytwicetheratesofteacherswhofeltpreparedtoentertheclassroom.Thislackofpreparednesshasfurtherexacerbatedthenumerousdifficultiesthatmanynewteachersexperiencewhenenteringtheirclassroomsforthefirsttime,andfartoomanyfindthemselvesillequippedtoprovidethehighqualityeducationstudentsneedanddeserveinordertocompeteinthe21stcenturyworkplace.Furthermore,despitethemoniesbeingspentoneducationinAmericatoday,manynewaswellasseasonedteachersreporttheylacktheinstitutionalsupportandmaterialresourcestheyneedtoteacheffectively.Moreover,teacher-studentratiosinpublicelementaryandsecondaryschoolshaveincreasedfromthe15.4ratioin2007toa16.1ratioinFall2017whilethecorrespondingteacher-studentratiosinprivateelementaryandsecondaryschooldeclinedfromthe2007ratioof13.0toa12.2ratiobyFall2017(Fastfacts,2018).Furthermore,newandexperienceteachersalikeacrossthecountryreportthattheyarebeingforcedtoresorttotheInternetforreadingmaterialsbecausetheydonothavetextbooks,andmanyspendtheirownmoneyonbasicclassroommaterialssuchasartsupplies,paperandpencilsandsoforth.Itisreasonabletosuggestthatmostteachersdonotentertheprofessiontogetrichbecauseteachingsalariesarewelldocumentedastrailingmanyotherprofessionsthatrequireacollegedegree,sospendingtheirownlimitedfundsinthisfashionissimplybittericingontheunpreparednesscake.ThesedisturbingtrendsaretakingplaceduringaperiodintheUnitedStates’historywhenthereisalreadyanunprecedentedshortageofqualifiedteachers.Infact,duringtheperiodfrom2009through2014,therewasaprecipitousdeclineof35%(610,000versus451,000)innewteacherenrollmentsinthecountry,andalmost8%ofcurrentteachersleavetheprofessionbeforeretirement(Strauss,2017).Moreover,theUnitedStatesiscurrentlylaggingbehindmanyothercountriesinthevitallyimportantareasofscience,technology,engineeringandmath(STEM)education,rankingadismal38thoutof71countriesinthesesubjectareas(Desilver,2017).Thiscombinationofteachersleavingtheprofessionwithin5yearsduringaperiodwhenthereisalreadyasevereteachershortageanddecliningtestscoresmeansthatfartoomanystudentsarebeingdeniedthehighqualityeducationthatarepurportedlyguaranteed,anissuethatformsthepurposeofthisstudyasdescribedbelow.PurposeoftheStudyTheoverarchingpurposeofthisstudyistohelpeducationalleaderslearnanddeterminethebestpracticestohelpalternativelyandtraditionallycertifiedteacherimprovestudentoutcomesandtohelpwithretentionefforts.Wheninitiallyreadingtheresearch,manyofthearticlescontainedbasiccontentthatreflectedmyinterest.Thisstudycontainsresearchsupportingmyinterestininductionprogramsandteacherretention.Additionally,itcontainsdetailsthathelpeddeterminetherelationshipbetweenteachercertification,teachingskills,andcontentknowledge.Thesecomponentsaredeeplyintertwinedinmyresearchinterest.Althoughnolongerfullyinplace,therationalebehindtheresearchinitiallyinvolvedtheNoChildLeftBehindAct(NCLB)of2001,whichrequiredschoolstohire\"highlyqualified\"teachers.Sincethentherehasbeentheestablishmentofmanyalternativecertificationprograms.Whetherornottheseprogramseffectivelyproducedteachers,andhelpwithretentionwaspartofwhatwasconsideredinthisstudy.Manyalternativelycertifiedteachersworkinthehighestneedsschoolswithinadequateandinconsistentsupport,whichraisedissuesofbasicfairnessandconcernsaboutalternativecertificationprogramdesigns.Thedataindicatedthatbecauseofthedifficultyofthefirstyearsofteachingundertheseconditionswithsofewcoordinatedsupports,jobsatisfactiondecreasedwithtimeonthejob,andretentionofteachersremainedaproblem.Thesetrendsandissuesfurtherreinforcetheneedforadditionalresearchconcerningstrategiestohelpnewteachersentertheclassroomwithastrongsenseofself-efficacybasedonactualpreparedness,andthisconceptualframeworkisdiscussedbelowtogetherwithagraphicillustrationofthefactorsthatcontributetoself-efficacyinnewteachers.ConceptualFrameworkFindingsofstudiesonteachers\'perspectives,perceptions,orbeliefshaveprovidedvaluableinsightsonassessingteachingpracticeslinkingteachers\'perceptions(orbeliefs)topositiveinstructionalpracticesincludingclassroommanagementaswellasstudentschooloutcomes(Jones,2006).Inthiscontext,teachingefficacy,definedas\"teachers\'beliefsabouttheirowneffectiveness\"(Yilmaz,2011,p.92),hasbeenacriticalconstructinteachereducationprogramsastheyattempttoimprovethequalityofteachercandidates\'skills,knowledge,anddispositions.Consequently,teacherefficacyisalsoanimportantconstructforthepurposeofthisstudyandtheconceptualframeworkthatwillbeusedtoguideit.Ateacher\'ssenseofefficacyinteaching,orhisorherconfidenceaboutbeingabletoinfluencestudents\'learning,isoneofthemostwell-documentedaspectsofeffectiveteaching(Henson,Kogan,&Vacha-Haase,2001).TheconceptofteacherefficacyisbasedonBandura\'s(1977;1986)theorythatefficacybeliefshaveaprofoundeffectonhumanagencyinvariousways.Forexample,manypeopletendtoavoidtasksanddonotputfortheffortwheretheydonotfeelconfidentinachievingsuccessfuloutcomes.Efficaciousbeliefsthereforeaffecthowteachersinteractwithstudentsaswellasthecorrespondingamountofefforttheyarewillingtodevotetotheeffortinmeetingacademicobjectivesandoptimaloutcomes.Inthisregard,Darling-Hammondetal.(2002)reportedsignificantcorrespondencebetweenfeelingsofpreparednessandsenseofefficacy,afindingconsistentwithotherresearchonteacherefficacy.Whenteachersfeeltheyarewellprepared,theytendtohavehighself-efficacyinteachingasconceptualizedinFigure1below.Figure1.ConceptualframeworkResearchQuestionsTheoverarchingresearchquestionthatwillguidethisstudyisasfollows:“Whatareteachers’perceptions,attitudes,knowledgeandtheirabilitytoimprovestudentoutcomes?”Insupportofthismainresearchquestion,thereareanumberofsubquestionsthatmustalsobeansweredasfollows:1.Whataretheperceptionsandattitudinaldifferencesbetweentraditionallyandalternativelycertifiedteachers?2.Whatistherelationshipbetweenteacherswhoaretraditionallyandalternativelycertified,andtheteacher’sperceptionoftheirknowledgeofcontent?3.Whatistherelationshipbetweenteacherswhoaretraditionallyandalternativelycertified,andtheteacher’sperceptionoftheirknowledgeofteachingskills?4.Wherearetheprimaryteachingassignmentsforalternativelycertifiedteachers?5.Whatistherelationshipbetweenteacherpreparednessandself-efficacy?6.Howdoyoudetermineyoureducationalrecruitmentandretentionprogrampractices?7.Howareeffectiverecruitmentandretentionprogramsorganized?8.Whatarethecostsassociatedwithrecruitmentandretentionprograms?9.Howdoesrecruitmentandretentionimpactattrition,schoolculture,andteacherdevelopment?10.Isyourevaluationsystemsetupasaprocessforcomplianceandjudgmentorforlearning?11.Dobothcertifiedandclassifiedstaffhavemultipleopportunitiesforongoingdialogueandconstructivefeedbackabouttheirprofessionalpractice?12.Wholooksattheinformationgeneratedbyyourevaluationsystemandhowisthisinformationbeingused?13.Whatisamentorprogramandhowitisorganized?14.Howisthelearningenvironmentdeterminedtobeconducivetoteachers\'success?RationalefortheStudyInordertodevelopinformedandtimelyanswerstotheabove-listedresearchquestionandsubquestions,thisstudywillexaminepriorresearchconcerningteacherpreparationandcertificationmethods.Researchhasshownthatvariousstrengthsaredisplayedbytraditionallycertifiedteachersandalternativelycertifiedteachersintheclassroom.Traditionallycertifiedteachershaveasenseofbeingmorepreparedtoprovidehigh-qualityinstructionupontheirentranceintotheclassroomforthefirsttime.Alternativelycertifiedteachers,whenprovidedwithamentorteacher,feelequallyprepared.Moreover,thereisalsoagrowingbodyofevidencethatapositivecorrelationexistsbetweenfeelingpreparedandself-efficacyforbothtraditionallycertifiedandalternativelycertifiedteachers.Whilealternativelycertifiedteachersusuallyhaveanexcessiveextentofcontentknowledge,alternativelycertifiedteachersdonothavetheexperienceintheeducationfieldthattraditionallycertifiedteachersreceiveduringtheirstudentteaching.Thisdifferenceiscitedtimeandagainasoneofthemainconstraintstotheeffectivenessofalternativecertificationprogramsinpreparingnewteachersfortheclassroomexperience.Itisthereforeimportanttodevelopanimprovedunderstandingconcerninghowteacherpreparationisreplicatedinteachingskillsandcontentknowledgewithintheclassroom.Allstakeholders,includingmostespeciallycollegiateteacherandprofessionaldevelopmentprograms,alternativeteachercertificationprograms,principals,administratorsandallthoseresponsibleforcreatingprofessionaldevelopmentopportunitiesforteacherscanbenefitfromfurtherresearchinthisareaandstudiessuchasthishavegreatimplicationsforthefieldofeducationasdiscussedbelow.SignificanceoftheStudyThesignificanceofthisstudyrelatestotheneedtoensurethatalternativelyandtraditionallycertifiedteachersarefullypreparedtoimprovestudentoutcomesbecauseteachingmattersbecauseeffectiveteachingisthefoundationforimprovededucationaloutcomes.Thereisasignificantbodyofresearchthatprovidesanestimateofhowmuchimpactbothalternativelyandtraditionallycertifiedteachershaveonstudentgrowth.Thisresearchdeterminedthatindividualteachersaccountforthelargestdifferencesinstudents’scoresonlarge-scaledstandardizetestbetweenstudentsattheendofanygivenyearaftercontrollingforthedifferencesthatstudentsbringtotheclassroomatthebeginningoftheyear(Gordon,Kane,&Staiger2006;Rivkin,Hanushek,&Kain,2000;Rockoff,2004;Rowan,Correnti,&Miller,2002;Wright,Horn,&Sanders,1997). Thismeansthattheextenttowhichnewteachersentertheclassroomwithouttherequisiteformaltrainingthattraditionaluniversity-basedprogramsprovidewilllikelybetheextenttowhichthesenewteachersleavetheprofessionandfailtoachieveoptimalacademicoutcomesuntiltheydo.Consequently,studiessuchasthisonearesignificantbecausetheyhelpshedfreshinsightsintotheongoingcontroversyconcerningtheefficacyofalternativecertificationprogramsinhelpingalleviatethenation’steachershortageandprovideallpublicschoolstudentswiththeeducationtheyneedtocompeteinthe21stcenturymarketplace.CHAPTERTWO:REVIEWOFTHELITERATURE ChapterIntroductionThefollowingliteraturereviewexaminesthevarioustypesofrelationshipsthatexistbetweenthetwocertificationmethods(traditionalandalternative).Additionally,areviewofteachers’perceptionoftheirknowledgeofcontentandteachingskills,orself-efficacy,isprovidedbysynthesizingpertinentliteraturebasedonthetypeofpreparednesstrainingtheyreceived.Finally,asummaryoftheresearchandkeyfindingsthatemergefromtheliteratureconcludethischapter.SourcesofTeacherCertificationThere are two mainwaysthatteacherscurrentlyreceivepreparationforobtainingforteachingcertificateorlicense:(1)traditionaluniversitybasedteachereducationprogramsthatarecompletedpriortoafirstyearofteaching;and,(2)alternativecertificationprogramsforuniversitygraduateswhohavenotgonethroughateachereducationprogramwhileobtainingadegree(Linek&Sampson,2012,p.68).ThebasicdifferencesbetweenthesetwoapproachestoteachercertificationorlicensurearedepictedgraphicallyinFigure2below.Figure2.TraditionalteachercertificationversusalternativeteachercertificationSource:https://www.ccny.cuny.edu/sites/default/files/certification_2.jpgAsnotedintheintroductorychapter,therehasbeenasevereshortageofqualifiedclassroomteachersintheUnitedStatesforanumberofyearsnow,andalternativecertificationprogramshavebeenimplementedacrossthecountryinresponse.Forinstance,MitchellandRomero(2010)statedthat,“InCalifornia,closetoathirdofallnewteachersentertheprofessionthroughtheintern-basedalternativecertificationroute[and]thispicturemirrorsanationwidetrend.All50statescurrentlyoffersomeformofalternativecertification”(p.364).Thereisalsogrowingsupportfortheuseofalternativecertificationprogramsforteachers.Forexample,theU.S.DepartmentofEducationmaintainsthatalternativecertificationstrategiescanhelptoincreasethequantityaswellasthequalityofnewclassroomteachersduringaperiodinthenation’shistorywhenthereisacriticalshortageofqualifiededucators(LInek&Sampson,2012).Therearesomecriticismsofthegrowingproliferationandacceptanceofalternativecertificationprograms,however,thatmustalsobetakenintoaccountwhenevaluatingtheefficacyofthesealternativepathwaystoaccreditation.Forexample,theNationalEducationAssociation\'s(NEA)CommitteeonInstructionandProfessionalDevelopmentemphasizesthat,“Whatbeganintheearly1980sasawaytowardoffprojectedshortagesofteachersandreplaceemergencycertificationhasrapidlyevolvedintoanacceptedmodelforrecruiting,training,andcertifyingthosewhoalreadyhaveatleastabachelor\'sdegreeandwanttobecometeachers”(Researchspotlightonalternativeroutestoteachercertification,2018,para.2).Astheresearchthatfollowsbelowwillclearlydemonstrate,thisissueisarecurringthemeintheliteratureconcerningself-efficacyandnewteachereffectiveness.Indeed,LinekandSampson(2012)emphasizethattheNEAhascriticizedalternativecertificationprogramsforloweringcertificationstandardswhichresultinnewteachersenteringtheclassroompoorlypreparedfortherigorstheywillinevitablyencounter.Inthisregard,LinekandSampsonreportthattheNEAandlike-mindedorganizationsbelievethat“alternativecertificationprogramsreducetheamountofpreparationteachershavebeforetakingonfulltimeclassroomresponsibilitiesbecauseresearchcontinuestodocumentthatthelesspreparationateacherhas,thelessstudentsachieve”(p.69).Conversely,proponentsofalternativecertificationprogramsmaintainthattheseprogramsprovideausefulframeworkinwhichtoattractnontraditionalcandidateswhoaregenerallyolderandwhopossessanon-educationdegreeaswellashavingsignificantexperienceinnon-teachingfieldstotheteachingprofession(Linek&Sampson,2012).Agrowingbodyofresearchconfirmsthatwhenpeopletransferfromonecareerfieldtoanother,theytypicallybringsomefreshskillstotheprofessionthatareespeciallyvaluable(Scott,2010),butadvocatesofalternativecertificationprogramsalsopointtoanumberofotherbenefitstheseprogramsprovide.Forinstance,LinekandSampson(2012)reportthat,“Somenontraditionalcandidatesareminoritymaleswhoaremembersofcommunitiesinneedofteachers.Alternativecertificationsupportersalsopointtotheintenseeducationsessionsbeforeandafterafulldayatschoolandtwosupervisorspercandidateassufficienttoproducequalifiedteachers”(p.70).Becausemanynewteacherswholeavetheprofessionwithinafewyearshavebeenassignedtoimpoverishedcommunitieswithinordinatelyhighpercentagesofstudentsfromlowersocioeconomicgroups,itjustmakesgoodsensetoattempttoattractnontraditionalmaleminoritymemberstotheteachingprofession,andproponentsofalternativecertificationprogramsarguethattraditionaluniversity-basedteachereducationprogramsrepresentsafundamental“barrier”toenteringtheteachingfieldforthesenon-traditionalcandidates(Linek&Sampson,2012).Nevertheless,therearesomedistinctdifferencesbetweenthesetwocertificationmodelsthatbearfurtherexaminationinordertodeterminetheextenttowhichtheycontributetonewteachers’senseofpreparednessandself-efficacy.Whileitispossibletoreapthebenefitsoffreshideasandskillsetsthataretransferredfromoneprofessiontoanotherinthebusinessworld(Scott,2010),thesameisnotnecessarilytruewhenitcomestothemannerinwhichalternativeeducationcertificationprogramspreparenewteachersfortheclassroomenvironment.Infact,thisisoneofthemajorproblemsthatcriticscitewhentheyarguethatalternativecertificationprogramsplacenewteachersinclassroomswithouttheformaltrainingtheyneedto“hitthegroundrunning.”Forinstance,LinekandSampson(2012)notethat:Thecurrentalternativeteachercertificationprogramsoftenputinstructorsinclassroomswithlittletonopedagogicaltraining.Yet,thosewhosupportalternativecertificationassumethatanyone,evenwithoutpedagogicalcoursework,whohasasubjectmatterdegreeandsometypeofprofessionalsupportcanbeginteachingandthatteachingabilitiescanbedevelopedonthejob.(p.70)Ontheonehand,themajorityofthestudiestodatethathavebeenusedtorationalizethisapproachtocredentialingnewteachershasreliedonastrictcomparisonoftestscoresonteachercertificationexaminationsratherthanonempiricalobservationsconcerningtheirrespectiveeffectivenesswithrespecttoclassroompracticeorcomparisonsofstandardizedtestscoresinclassestaughtbyteacherswithtraditionaltrainingbackgroundswiththoseofalternativelycredentialedteachers.Asaresult,thereremainsapaucityofevidenceconcerningtheactualeffectivenessofalternativecredentialprogramsinpreparingnewteachersfortheclassroom(Linek&Sampson,2012).Ontheotherhand,though,themajorityofthestudiesduringthepastseveraldecadeshasconsistentlydeterminedthatteacherswithtraditionalteachereducationprogrambackgroundwhoentertheclassroomasfullycertifiedteachersenjoyhigherlevelsofprofessionalsuccesscomparedtotheircounterpartswhoreceivetheirteachingcertificateorlicensethroughalternativecredentialingprograms.Basedonthesefindings,LinekandSampson(2012)suggestthatnewteacherswholackatraditionaluniversity-basededucationshouldberestrictedintheirteachingresponsibilitiesunlessanduntiltheysecureone.InthisregardLinekandSampsonconcludethat“itmaynotbeinthebestinterestofstudentsandsociety,ingeneral,togiveanewteacherinanalternativecertificationprogramsoleresponsibilityfortheday-to-dayfunctionsofaclassroompriortothecompletionofaneducationaltrainingprogram”(p.71).Itisthereforecriticalthattheeducationalcommunitycomprehendstheeffectthatalternativecertificationroutehaswithteacherqualityandself-efficacybecausemanyoftheteachersenteringthefieldareenteringthroughthismethod.Kennedy(2008)pointsout“thevolumeofresearchonteachers\'qualificationshasgrowntoseveralhundredstudies,butithasnotsettledargumentsaboutthemeritsofteachereducationprograms”(p.344). Additionalresearchinthisfieldwillhavegreatimplicationsonstudentachievementasteachersarepreparedfortheclassroom,throughcollegiateteacherprogramsandalternativeteacherprograms. Todiscoverarticlesrelatedtothistopicthefollowingkeytermswereused:pedagogicalknowledge,initialcertification,contentknowledge,alternativecertification,teachingskills,self-efficacy,teacherpreparedness,traditionalcertification.Fivedistinctivepatternsemergedfromthereviewofthearticles:(1)Thereisalinkbetweenteachersfeelingpreparedandself-efficacy.(2)Traditionallycertifiedteachersexpressedfeelingmorepreparedthanalternativelycertifiedteachers.(3)Whileonaverage,butnotasmuchastraditionallycertifiedteachers,alternativelycertifiedteachershavearespectableunderstandingofcontentknowledge.(4)Self-efficacyisincreasedwhenalternativelycertifiedteachersareassignedamentor.(5)Alternativelycertifiedteacherslackexperienceintheteachingprofessionascomparedtotraditionallycertifiedteacherswhogainstudentteachingexperience.Thesemainpatternsandthemeswillbeassessedtodeterminehowtobestsupportteachersinhelpingstudentsbecomeacademicallysuccessful.Oneofthemainwaysthatnewteachersreceiveinstitutionalsupportisthroughtheassignmentofmentorteacherstopromotetheirsenseofself-efficacyasdiscussedbelow.MentorTeacher’sImpactonSelf-EfficacyThethemefoundwhenanalyzingtheliteratureconcerningthisfactwasthattheprovisionofmentorteachertoalternativelycertifiedteachersresultedinincreasedself-efficacyofthealternativelycertifiedteachers.Whendiscussingtheuseofamentorteacher,Rockoff,Jacob,Kane,andStaiger(2008)suggestdistrictsfocusmoreon“performanceintheearlypartofteachers’careersasopposedtospendingmoreresourcesonrecruitmentandhiring”(p.1),asalternativelycertifiedteacherswithamentorareonparwithtraditionallycertifiedteachersinregardstoself-efficacy(Metzler&Blankenship,2008).Likewise,Evans(2011)sawasignificantincreaseinattitudestowardsteachingandteacher’sself-efficacywhenteacherswereassignedamentorteacher.Alternativelycertifiedteachersfeltlesssupported,whichcanleadtoadirecteffectoffeelingunsuccessful(Foote,Brantlinger,Haydar,Smith,&Gonzalez,2010).Thisfeelingofbeingunsuccessfulcanoftenbelimited(Hung&Smith,2012)orprogressivelyminimized(Robinson&Edwards,2012)whenassigningappropriatementorstonewteachers.Havingamentorallowsteacherstobemoreconfidentintheirownabilitiestoteach,particularlyalternativelycertifiedteachers(Mouza,Karchmer-Klein,Nandakumar,Ozden,&Hu,2014;Unruh&Holt,2010).Withteachersfeelingmoresupported,theyaremorelikelytoremaininthefield(Malow?Iroff,O’Connor,&Bisland,2007).ExperienceintheTeachingProfessionHumanresourcedepartmentsarecontinuouslyrecruitingnewteachingtalentbecausekeepinghighlyqualifiedandsuccessfulteachersintheclassroomisbecomingamajorchallenge.Siwatu(2011)expressed“asevidencedbythenumerousreportswrittenbygovernmentandinternationaleducationalagenciesaswellasrecentempiricalstudies,teacherattritionrateshavebecomeasignificantinternationalconcernamongeducationaladministrators”(p.357).Therefore,itisnosurprisethatthiswasarecurringthemeintheresearch.Forexample,NgandThomas(2007)reportedthat“between40%and50%ofallbeginningteachersleaveteachingwithinthefirst5years”(p.3).Therefore,itshouldbeahighpriorityforthoseinthefieldofeducationresearchtodeterminethewhyandcombatthisstatistic.Teacherswhofeelinadequatelysupportedaremorelikelytoleavetheeducationfield,andthosewhofeelstronglyintheirabilitytoeducateyounglearnersaregenerallymoreeffectiveteacherswithagreaterchanceofcontinuingintheteachingprofession(Foote,Brantlinger,Haydar,Smith&Gonzalez,2010;Mouza,Karchmer-Klein,Nandakumar,Ozden&Hu,2014).InMalow?Iroff,O\'Connor,andBisland\'s(2007)study,29%offirst-yearteachersintendedtoleavethefieldattheendoftheirfirstschoolyearbecausetheyfeltinadequatelysupported.Therearehigherretentionratesforfirst-yearteacherswhoaretraditionallycertifiedthanthosewhoobtainedalternativecertification(Robinson&Edwards,2012).Thus,agrowingbodyofevidenceindicatesthattheprovisionofamentorservestoincreaseself-efficacy,andateacher’slongevityinthefield(Tournaki,Lyublinskaya,&Carolan,2009). Beyondtheforegoingdesirableoutcomes,therearesomeotherbenefitstoassigningmentorstonewteacherstopromotetheirsenseofself-efficacy,includingmostespeciallythemannerinwhichtheseprogramshelpmentorsindevelopingtheirownteachingexpertise.Inthisregard,EpsteinandWillhite(2015)emphasizethat,“Theprofessionalskillsofmentorteachersarealsostrengthenedandastudyaddressingpre-serviceteacherpreparation[foundthat]85%ofmentorteachersreportedlearninginnovativeteachingstrategies,astrongerunderstandingofculturallyresponsiveteachingaswellasenhancedcommunicationandcollaborationskills”(p.191).Insum,assigningmentorstonewteacherstopromotetheirsenseofself-efficacyandpreparednessrepresentsawin-winstrategyforschooldistrictsacrossthecountry,andtheseissuesarealsoapplicabletoalternativelycertifiedteachersasdiscussedfurtherbelow.SupportforAlternativelyCertifiedTeachers Researchindicatesthatthereisalinkbetweenalternativecertificationandanincreasedunderstandingofcontentknowledge.First-yearteacherswhoarealternativelycertifiedhavebeenshowntohaveastrongerknowledgeandcommandofthecontentthanthosetraditionallycertified(Boyd,Grossman,Hammerness,Lankford,Loeb,Ronfeldt,&Wyckoff,2010;Duncan&Ricketts,2008).Alternativelycertifiedteachersaremostefficaciousabouttheircontentknowledge(Duncan&Ricketts,2008).Thisisanoftenoverlookedpositiveattributetoalternativecertificationprograms.Notwithstandingthevariouscriticismsthathavebeenleveledagainstthem,otherattributesofalternativecertificationprogramsforteachersthatsupporttheirincreaseduseincludethefollowing:·Recruitingbrightandpromisingcollegegraduatesintoteachingwhodonotfollowtraditionalcertificationroutes;·Lesseningrelianceonemergencycertifications,·Breakingthemonopolyoftraditionalteachercertificationprograms,butallowingoutsiders,suchasfoundationsandcorporations,toinfluenceteacherpreparationpolicy;·Encouragingderegulationofteacherpreparation;and,·Meetingtheneedsofurbanschoolsandstudentsthattraditionalteachercertificationprogramsfail(Zhao,2005,p.2).Someofthecurrentobjectivesofalternativecertificationprogramsfornewteachersaredirectlyalignedwiththenation’sprioritiesforitspublicschools,whileothersaremorepragmaticintheiroutlookconcerningwhattypesofoptimaloutcomescanbeachievedusingthesecredentialingstrategies.Atpresent,theobjectivesofalternativecertificationprogramsincludethefollowing:·Todiversifytheteachingforceandincreasetheparticipationofunder-representedteachersbyrecruitingmoremaleandminoritypeopleintotheteachingforce;·Toreducetheteachershortageandincreasetheteachingpoolinurbanandruralschooldistricts,andincertainsubjectssuchasmathematicsandscience;·Toimprovethequalityoftheteachingforcebyrecruitingpersonswhoarebrighterthantheaveragetraditionallycertifiedteachersandwhohavehadabroaderrangeofexperiencesoutsideofteaching;and,·Todecreasetheneedforemergencycredentialingtomeetteachershortages(Zhao,2005,pp.2-3).Asnotedthroughout,marginalizedstudentsinurbanschoolsettingsareespeciallyinneedofhighlyqualifiedandcapableteachers,meaningthatalternativecertificationprogramsholdthepotentialtohelpalleviatetheteachershortageinthesevenues.Asalsonotedthroughout,however,itmakeslittlesensetothrustnewteachersintotheclassroomwithoutadequateandappropriatepreparationfortherigorstheywillinevitablyencounter,andtheseissuesarediscussedfurtherbelow.TeacherPreparednessandSelf-Efficacy Thereisadirectcorrelationbetweenteachers’feelingsofbeingpreparedandtheircorrespondingfeelingofself-efficacy(Darling-Hammond,Chung,&Frelow,2002).ThisassertionissupportedbyBandura’sseminalresearchinthisareaaswellasagrowingbodyofevidencethatconfirmstherelationshipbetweenasenseofpreparednessandself-efficacy.Althoughanumberofdifferentfactorsplayanimportantroleinfosteringteacherqualityandeffectivenessintheclassroom,teacherpreparationprogramshavebeenfoundtoplayanespeciallymajorroleintheprocessbecausetheyprovidenewteacherswiththeopportunitytomakeadifferenceinthequalityofteachinginwaysthatmotivatethemandreinforcetheirsenseofself-efficacy.However,theliteratureonteacherpreparationprogramsshowsthatdifferentprogramsvaryinlearningexperiencesofferedandinhowwellpreparedgraduatesfeel(Lee&Tice,2012).Whileadditionalresearchinthisareaisstillneeded,whatisknownforcertainatpresentisthatteacherswithahighersenseofself-efficacyfeelmoreprepared,andthissenseprovidesmoresupportandamorepositiveclassroomenvironmentcomparedtootherteacherswithlowerself-efficacylevels(Connor,Guo,Morrison,Roehrig,&Yang,2012).Teacherswhohavelesscourseworkineducationandshorterfieldexperiencesareoftenlessprepared(Kee,2012) andthus,havealowsenseofself-efficacy.Itisreasonabletosuggestthatlikeliontamers,newteacherswhofeelmorepreparedtoentertheclassroomforthefirsttimewillbemoreeffectiveinprovidingthehighqualityeducationallstudentsneedanddeserve,andtheseissuesarediscussedfurtherbelowwithrespecttonewteachers’feelingofpreparedness.FeelingofPreparedness Itisfairlyintuitivethatpeoplewhopossessastrongsenseofpreparednessforagiventaskorresponsibilitywillalsobebetterpreparedfortheenterprise,butthesourceofthepreparednessfeelingmakesadifferenceinthequalityandquantitativeofthisinnatesense.Forexample,teacherswhoarepreparedthroughtraditionalteachereducationprograms,suchasthroughauniversity,feelsignificantlybetterpreparedthanthosewhoenterthefieldthroughalternativeprograms(Chung,Darling-Hammond,&Frelow,2002;Connor,Morrison&Roehrig,&Yang,2012;Connor,Guo,Morrison,Roehrig,&Yang,2012).Inthiscontext,educators’senseofefficacyconcerningtheirteachingtranslatesintoacorrespondinglevelofconfidenceabouttheirabilitytohaveapositiveeffectonacademicoutcomes,andthissenseisamongthebestdocumentedissuesabouteffectiveteaching(Lee&Tice,2012).ThisconceptualizationofteacherefficacyderivesfromBandura\'stheoryconcerningefficacybeliefswhichhebelievedinfluencedhumanagencyinanumberofdifferentways(Lee&Tice,2012).Inthisregard,Bandura(1997)pointedoutthat“anefficacyexpectationistheconvictionthatonecansuccessfullyexecutethebehaviorrequiredtoproducetheoutcomes”(p.193)and“self-efficacyisaperson\'sbeliefinhisorherabilitytosucceedinaparticularsituation[whichare]determinantsofhowpeoplethink,behave,andfeel”(ascitedinEpstein&Willhite,2015,p.190)..Agoodexampleofthistheoreticalperspectiveisthatmanypeopletendtoavoidperformingtasksorresponsibilitieswithwhichtheyareuncomfortableandthereforefailtogivetheinitiativealloftheireffortandabilities(Lee&Tice,2012).Inorderwords,adiminishedsenseofself-efficacyisessentiallyaself-fulfillingprophecythathasdoomedmanyteachers’professionalcareersbeforetheyeverhadtheopportunitytolearntheropesandbecomecomfortableinaclassroomsetting.Whiletheseconstraintshaveresultedinmanyotherwise-qualifiedteachersleavingtheprofession,theimpactonstudentsduringtheprocessisalsonaturallynegativeandadverselyimpactstheirabilitytolearn.Asaresult,teachersmustrecognizethemannerinwhichtheirsenseofself-efficacyaffectstheirabilitytoeffectivelydrawonwhattheyhavelearnedduringtheirteachereducationprocess.Inthisarea,Banduraspeculatedthateveninthosecaseswherepeoplefullyunderstandwhattypeofactionsoractivitiesarerequiredinordertoproduceadesiredoutcome,theyarereluctanttopursuetheseeffortsiftheybelievetheylackoftheexpertiseconcerninghowtobestaccomplishthemsotheyexertlessefforttowardsthatoutcome(Taylor&Ringlaben,2012).Moreover,thesepointsarealsomadebyDarling-Hammondetal.(2002)whoreportthatteachers’senseofself-efficacydirectlycontributestotheamountofefforttheyarewillingtoexpendinordertoachieveimprovedacademicoutcomes.Inabroadercontext,thisprocessisinherentlyhumaninnaturesincepeoplewhofeeltheyareincapableofachievingsomething,mostespeciallyobjectivesthatareparticularlycomplexanddifficultandwhicharelargelyoutsidetheirareaofexperiencewillfeellessinclinedtoexpendinordinateamountsofeffortcomparedtothosewhopossesstherequisitebackgroundandskillssetneededforthesepurposes.Likewise,LeeandTice(2012)pointoutthatthereisastrongrelationshipbetweennewteachers’senseofself-efficacyandtheircorrespondingfeelingsofpreparedness.Insum,LeeandTiceconcludethat,“Whenteachersfeeltheyarewellprepared,theytendtohavehighself-efficacyinteaching”(2012,p4).Theseobservationsbringtomindtheaxiomprovidedbythe“LittleEngineThatCould”whichstressesthatwhenpeoplebelievetheyarecapableofaccomplishingsomething,theywillnaturallytendtobemorewillingtoexpendtheeffortrequiredtodoso.Manyalternativelycertifiedteachers,however,feellesspreparedtosupportstudentlearningthantoteachcontent(Zientek,2006,2007),andmuchlesspreparedoverallthantraditionallycertifiedteachers(Kee,2012).Forexample,UnruhandHolt(2010)andRobinsonandEdwards(2012)foundmoresimilaritiesthandifferencesbetweentheprograms.However,theydidnotealternativelycertifiedteachersfeellesspreparedunlesstheywereprovidedwithadditionalsupportservices.Takentogether,itisclearthatdifferentlycredentialednewteachershavesignificantlydifferentclassroomexperiences,andthesedifferencesrelate,atleastinpart,totheircredentialingprograms.Summary Thisliteraturesynthesisoffersevidencethatthereisadditionalworktobedoneinregardstoresearchoverthestrengthsandweaknessesofbothcertificationprograms.Theliteraturereviewshowedthattraditionallycertifiedteachershadmoreself-efficacy.Italsoshowedthatifalternativelycertifiedteacherswereassignedamentor,theycouldhavethesamelevelofself-efficacy.Furthermore,therewerelinkstiedtoateacher\'ssenseofpreparednessandself-efficacy.Issuesregardingteacherretentionalsosurfaced.Thisshowedacorrelationtoself-efficacyandlongevityinthefield;alternativelycertifiedteachershadahigherturnoverrate.Additionally,theresearchconfirmedthatalternativelycertifiedteachershadgoodunderstandingofcontent,bothindepthandbreadth.CHAPTERTHREE:METHODOLOGYOverviewAsnotedintheintroductorychapter,theoverarchingresearchquestionthatwillbeusedtoguidethisstudyisasfollows:“Whatareteachers’perceptions,attitudes,knowledgeandtheirabilitytoimprovestudentoutcomes?”Thismainresearchquestionincludeanumberofsubquestionsthatmustalsobeansweredasfollows:15.Whataretheperceptionsandattitudinaldifferencesbetweentraditionallyandalternativelycertifiedteachers?16.Whatistherelationshipbetweenteacherswhoaretraditionallyandalternativelycertified,andtheteacher’sperceptionoftheirknowledgeofcontent?17.Whatistherelationshipbetweenteacherswhoaretraditionallyandalternativelycertified,andtheteacher’sperceptionoftheirknowledgeofteachingskills?18.Wherearetheprimaryteachingassignmentsforalternativelycertifiedteachers?19.Whatistherelationshipbetweenteacherpreparednessandself-efficacy?20.Howdoyoudetermineyoureducationalrecruitmentandretentionprogrampractices?21.Howareeffectiverecruitmentandretentionprogramsorganized?22.Whatarethecostsassociatedwithrecruitmentandretentionprograms?23.Howdoesrecruitmentandretentionimpactattrition,schoolculture,andteacherdevelopment?24.Isyourevaluationsystemsetupasaprocessforcomplianceandjudgmentorforlearning?25.Dobothcertifiedandclassifiedstaffhavemultipleopportunitiesforongoingdialogueandconstructivefeedbackabouttheirprofessionalpractice?26.Wholooksattheinformationgeneratedbyyourevaluationsystemandhowisthisinformationbeingused?27.Whatisamentorprogramandhowitisorganized?28.Howisthelearningenvironmentdeterminedtobeconducivetoteachers\'success?Thischapterprovidesadescriptionoftheproposedstudy’smethodology,includingtheresearchdesigndescribedbelowthatwillbeusedtodeveloptimelyandinformedanswerstotheabove-listedresearchquestionsandsubquestions.ResearchDesignAmixedmethodsresearchdesignwillbeusedfortheproposedstudyconsistingofqualitativeandquantitativemethods.Thisdesignincludesstructuredinterviews,surveys/self-completionquestionnaires,andparticipantobservations.Inaddition,theresearchdesignincludescontributionsfromanumberofkeystakeholders.Therewillbeseveralinitiativesusedbytheproposedstudy’sresearchdesigntomovefrominitiationtoimplementation,andthentoinstitutionalization.Theprocessofinitiationwillinvolvetheeffortsofkeypersonnelwhohavedirecttiestotheendgoal.Thiswillbethemostimportantprocessbecauseeffectiveimplementationorinstitutionalizationrestonthefoundationofinitiation.Inorderforthisresearchdesigntobesuccessful,therewillbeseveralindividualsinvolvedintheinitiative.Withoutquestion,alternativelyandtraditionallycertifiedteacherswith0-3yearsofexperiencewillparticipateinthestudyalongwiththeirprincipals.Additionally,therewillbedatateammembers,mentors,instructionalcoaches,technologyteammembers,andateamofindividualsinvolvedwiththeinductionprocess.Thedatateammemberswillworkwiththeteacherstohelpfamiliarizethemwithstudentdata,aswellasschoolanddistrictdata.Teacherswillworkspecificallyonhowtointerpretthedata.Thiswillbenefittheteachersbecausetheywillgainunderstandingintermsofhowtobetterpreparetheirlessonsbaseduponstudentperformancedata.Inaddition,mentorswillbeassignedtotheteachers.Mentorswillworkwithteachersonaday-to-daybasis.Thiswillallowthementorstogetacquaintedtotheschool’scultureandbeassessableforquestionsandgeneralguidance.Instructionalcoacheswillbeinvolvedtoprovideguidanceandunderstandingoflessondesignandinstructionalmethods.Theinstructionalcoacheswillalsomodellessonsandmakeobservationstoprovidefeedbackonhowtheteachersperform.Thiswillalsohelptheteacherstobetterunderstandhowtointeractwithstudents.Technologyteammemberswillhelpteachersunderstandhowtobestutilizethenecessarytechnologyfortheirday-to-daytasks.Additionally,thetechnologyteammemberswillprovidetrainingonlearningprogramsthatteacherswillbeencouragedtohavestudentsutilizefortheirlearning.Theinductionteammemberswillprovideanopportunityforteacherstobeinvolvedinanengagingprocess,whichwillhelpthemunderstandthegeneraloperationofthedistrictaswellaswhoandhowtoaccessallthingsthattheymayneed.Insum,theindividuals,district/campusadministrators,teachers,andsupportstaffwhowillworkontheinitialphaseoftheprogramarecriticaltoitssuccess.Theseindividualsmustpossesseffectiveleadershiptraits,pedagogicalknowledge,andasolidresumeofsuccess.Duringtheinitiationphase,theseindividualswillworkdiligentlytoidentifyandanalyzeanevaluationprogram,classsizes,andfunding.Duringtheentireprocess,therewillbethreedistinctphasesthatarecomposedofactionplansforeachphase,involvingcollaborationandreviewofvariousdatasetstodefineownershipandalignmentofresponsibilitiesforthevariousimprovementmeasurestobeimplementedandultimatelyinstitutionalizedintheimplementationplanassetforthinTable1below.Table1StepstowardsimplementationPhaseDescriptionofActionsPhaseone:InitiationPlan?Action1.InitialResearchandReviewofTeamSelectionOncethedistrictisinterestedinimplementingtheinitiative,thereisreviewoftheinitiativescomponentsandactivities.Thisinformationissharedamongsttheteammembers.?Action2.InitialCollectionofHistoricDataandLongitudinalHistorySelf-Study.Theteammemberscollectpreviousdatarelatedtofunding,classsizes,evaluationprograms,andstudentoutcomes.Afterwards,theydeterminetheorganizationalhealthofthedistrictandrelatedimpactsonstudentoutcomes.?Action3.FacultyDiscussiononProjectandRolloutThesuperintendentsharestheprojectmodelandtimelineswiththeentirestaff.Phase2.ImplementationPlan?Action1.InitialImplementationPlanMeetingThisistheinitialplanningmeetingfortheteammembers.Writtenoutlinesofthesteps,activitiestimelines,androlesareassigned.?Action2.OrganizationalReadinessValidationTheteammembersvalidatetheirfindingsandtheprogramssustainability(adequatefunding,appropriateclasssizeratios,andevaluationprogram).?Action3.FormationofRolloutofProgramsThisactioninvolvestheformationandinitiationoftheinductionprogram,mentorprogramandassignments,andtheassignmentsofdata/technology/instructionalteammemberstoteachers.?Action4.EvaluationandStudentOutcomesStudyDuringthistime,theteachersareevaluatedandprovidedadditionaltrainingandresourcestodeterminehowtheywelltheyhelpedtheirstudentsachieve.Theevaluationprocesswillincludeclassroomwalkthroughs,monitoringofpedagogicalpractices,collaborativeandcollegialrelationships,andacclimationtotheschool’s/district’sculture.Feedbackwillbeprovidedasitisessentialforteacherstogrow.Also,teachersandprincipalswillreviewstudentoutcomestoincludeongoingclassroomsummativeassessments,districtgradingcards,andstateassessmentdata.?Action5.AchievementoftheGoalTheteammemberswilldetermineifthegoalsarebeingaccomplished.Acomprehensivereviewoftheresources,timelines,etc.willbeconducted.Acomprehensiveneedsassessmentwillalsobeconductedtohelpensurethattheprogrammovesforwardsuccessfully.Phase3.InstitutionalizationPlan?Action1.ReviewandAlignmentofDistrictPolicies,VisionandMissionStatementsThedistrictmakescertainthatdistrictpoliciesandvisionandmissionstatementsareconsistentwiththemodel’sinitiatives.Ifnot,appropriatepolicychangesorstatementrevisionsareproposed.?Action2.ReviewMulti-tieredDataCollection,Management,andImplementationSystemsReviewstrategies,programs,andapproachestoidentifystrengths,weaknesses,gaps,andneedsforshortandlong-termpurposes.?Action3.DevelopmentandValidationofAccountabilityMatrixTosafeguardagainstindividualapproaches,thecreationofasystemsapproachisnecessary.Therefore,thedevelopmentandvalidationofanaccountabilitymatrixwillguaranteeasystematicprocess.?Action4.TrainingfortheEntireStaffToinstitutionalizethemodelandhaveanimpactonallstakeholders,therewillbeongoingtrainingforallparticipants.Theresultsfromtheimplementationplanwillbeusedtoidentifywhereteachersareperformingwellandwheretheymayneedtoimprove.Theresultswillnotonlybeusedtoholdteachersaccountablebutwillalsobeusedtoholdpolicymakersandschoolleadersaccountable.Thesuccessoftheinitiativewillbedeterminedbyultimatelymeasuringstudentoutcomesmeasuredbystateassessmentsanddistrictgradingcards.Thiswillallowcomparisonsbetweenalternativelyandtraditionallycertifiedteachers’performanceoveraperiodtime.Embeddedinthisthree-phaseinitiativeareparticularundertakingsforthedistricttoinitiatetheplan.Itisimportanttorealizethatthisisonlyonemodeltomeetthedemandsofimprovingstudentoutcomesbyimprovingteachers’self-efficacyandpreparedness.Thedistrictmustusetheirstaffandresourcestocontinuouslyevaluatetheimpactofthismodeltoprovidecontinuousimprovementmeasures.Thismodelcanbesuccessfullyinitiated,implementedandinstitutionalizedaslongasthereisacommitment,communication,andasharedleadershipapproach.Besidestheforegoingkeystakeholders,themainparticipantsintheproposedstudyaredescribedbelow.ParticipantsAsnotedabove,theparticipantsintheproposedstudywillconsistofbothtraditionallyandalternativelycertifiedpubliceducationteacherswithzerotothreeyearsofexperience.Toensuredataiscollectedfromavarietyofsubjects/contentsandgradelevels,fiftypercentoftheteacherswillbesecondary,andtheotherfiftypercentwillbeelementary.SpecialeducationteachersandteacherswhoteachacriticalneedssubjectsaswellasCareerandTechnologyEducation(CATE/CTE)subjectswillalsobeincluded.Additionally,therewillbedatateammembers,mentors,instructionalcoaches,technologyteammembers,andateamofindividualsinvolvedintheinductionprocess.Thedatateammemberswillworkwiththeteacherstohelpfamiliarizethemwithstudentdata,aswellasschoolanddistrictdata.Teacherswillworkspecificallyonhowtointerpretthedata.Thiswillbenefittheteachersbecausetheywillgainunderstandingregardinghowtobetterpreparetheirlessonsbasedonstudentperformancedata.Mentorswillbeassignedtotheteachers.Mentorswillworkwithteachersonaday-to-daybasis.Thiswillallowthementorstogetacquaintedwiththeschool\'scultureandbeassessableforquestionsandgeneralguidance.Instructionalcoacheswillbeinvolvedtoprovideguidanceandunderstandingoflessondesignandinstructionalmethods.Theinstructionalcoacheswillalsomodellessonsandmakeobservationstoprovidefeedbackonhowtheteachersperform.Inaddition,thisstepwillalsohelptheteacherstobetterunderstandhowtointeractwithstudents.Technologyteammemberswillhelpteachersunderstandhowtobestutilizethenecessarytechnologyfortheirday-to-daytasks.Additionally,thetechnologyteammemberswillprovidetrainingonlearningprogramsthatteacherswillbeencouragedtohavestudentsutilizefortheirlearning.Theinductionteammemberswillprovideanopportunityforteacherstobeinvolvedinanengagingprocess,whichwillhavethemunderstandthegeneraloperationofthedistrictaswellaswhoandhowtoaccessallthingsthattheymayneed.TheschooldistrictwheretheseparticipantsareassignedisarepresentativeAmericanschooldistrictwherethemajorityofthestudentsarecategorizedaseconomicallydisadvantagedandatriskofdroppingoutand/oracademicfailure.ThedemographicbreakdownoftheschooldistrictissetforthinTable2belowanddepictedgraphicallyinFigure3below.Table2DemographicbreakdownofschooldistrictofinterestDemographicgroupPercentageofstudentenrollmentHispanic39.9White37.9AfricanAmerican15.1Twoormoreraces3.7Asian2.9PacificIslander0.2AmericanIndian0.1Figure3.DemographicbreakdownofstudentsintheschooldistrictofinterestThesocioeconomicandacademicstatusofthestudentsintheschooldistrictofinterestaresetforthinTable3anddepictedgraphicallyinFigure4below.Table3SocioeconomicandacademicstatusofstudentsintheschooldistrictofinterestSocioeconomic/academicstatusPercentageofstudentenrollmentAt-Risk49.2EconomicallyDisadvantaged42.5EnglishLanguageLearners18.6GiftedandTalented18.0SpecialEducation7.9Figure4.SocioeconomicandacademicstatusofstudentsintheschooldistrictofinterestThefocusonlifelonglearninghasbeenimperativetothedistrict’ssuccess.However,duetothelargenumberofalternativelycertifiedteachers,andthehighteacherattritionrate,collectivelearningisinconsistentlyimplemented.Thus,studentoutcomesarehinderedinachievingtheirfullacademicpotential.Theteachersareencouragedtoallowstudentstohavereal-worldlearningopportunities.Thechallengeiswithteachersknowingtocreateactivitiestoincorporatethisintotheirclasses.Fortheteacherstobetterworktowardsthisend,timehasbeenscheduledforthemtocollaborateduringschoolhours.Thissitewasselectedfortheproposedstudybecausetheauthorisanemployeeinthedistrict,andwouldliketoretrieveandanalyzethisdatatoidentifythedistrict\'srespectivestrengthsandchallengestodeterminehowthisstudymayhelpimproveteacherretentionandpreparednessinwaysthatwillcontributetobetteracademicoutcomes.InstrumentationSomeadditionaldatathatwillbecollectedforthestudyproposedhereinwillrequireinstrumentation,includingquestionsforface-to-faceinterviewsandfocusgroups,aswellasteacherquestionnaires,studentassessmentperformancedata,teammembersinputandsuggestionforms,andteacherevaluationdata.Theface-to-faceinterviewsfortheproposedstudywillbeconductedtoreceivepersonalinsightregardingtheparticipant\'sexperience.Focusgroupswillbeutilizedtodiscussandreceivegeneralinsightonvariousaspectsoftheimplementationplan,evaluationtool,andmeasuresforcontinuousimprovement.Inaddition,teacherquestionnaireswillhelpbetterdeterminewaystoincreaseteacherefficacy,studentoutcomes,aswellastodetermineprogramimprovementmeasures.Likewise,studentassessmentperformancedatawillhelptodeterminehowwellstudentsbenefittedfromthemeasuresputinplacetohelpteachersbefullyprepared.Teammembersinputandsuggestionsformswillallowadditionalinsightintotheirsuccesses,andareasforimprovementwhenworkingwithteachers.Inaddition,teacherevaluationdatawillbeusedtodeterminehowteachersperformed,showopportunitiesteachershadtomakeimprovements,provideinformationtodetermineprofessionaldevelopmentneeded,andtodetermineifteachersshouldcontinueintheclassroom.Allofthisdatawillbeanalyzedtodeterminetrends,toincreaseandmakedeterminationsofeffectiveness,equity,andqualityofeducation.Uponreviewofalloftheabovedata,adjustmentswillbemadetoprogram,ifneeded.Therewillbeeffortstoprioritizeandaddresseachoftheconcernsastheyaredirectlyrelatedtostudentoutcomes.Thestructuredinterviewswillaskquestionsregardingtheteacher\'s(a)familiaritywiththecontent,(b)relationshipswiththestudentsandstaff,(c)abilitytoensurestudentsengagement.Surveys/self-completionquestionswillbeprovidedsothattheteacherscanprovideinsightonvariousaspectsrelatedtoschoolcultureandthegeneralexpectationsfromcampusadministrators.Participantswillbeobservedovertlytodeterminehowtheyinteractwithstudentsandstaffmembers.Ananalysisofeachmethodwillbeusedtotrackandprovideinputandfeedback.DataCollectionDatacollectionfortheproposedstudywillincludebutnotbelimitedtothefollowing:·Reviewandassessmentofpolicydocuments,·Structuredface-to-faceinterviewswithteachers,principalsandschooldistrictpersonnel;·Formalvideotapedobservations;·Surveys;·Focusgroups;·Informalobservationsofclassroomsandteacher/staffmeetings;·Documentreviewsofteacherevaluations,gradereports,attendancereports,standardizedtests,etc.Muchoftheabovedatawillbecollectedandanalyzedandcombinedwithotherdatacollectedinordertodeveloptimelyandinformedanswerstothestudy’sabove-listedguidingresearchquestionandsubquestions.DataAnalysisThedatacollectedasdescribedabovewillbeanalyzedusingadeductiveapproachbasedonthestudy’sguidingresearchquestionandsubquestions.ThisdataanalysisapproachisconsistentwiththeguidanceprovidedbyOnuoah(2017)whoreportsthatincontrasttoaninductivedataanalysisstrategy,“Thedeductiveapproachtoqualitativedataanalysisinvolvesanalyzingdatabasedonastructurepredeterminedbytheresearcher.Inthiscase,youcanuseyourresearchquestionsasaguideforgroupingandanalyzingyourdata”(para.3).Inreality,though,thedataanalysisfortheproposedstudyrepresentsamajorcomponentoftheresearchprocesssincemanyofthestepsthatareinvolvedaretime-consumingandlaborintensivebutwhichareabsolutelyessentialtoensurethatanaccurateoverallpictureofthefindingsemergesfromtheanalyticalapproach.Forthispurpose,thegeneralstepsthatareinvolvedinadeductiveanalysisapproacharesetforthinTable4below.Table4DeductivedataanalysisDataAnalysisStepDescriptionStep1:Transcribealldata?Followingthecollectionofrawdatafromthefield,thefirststeprequiredistranscribingallrecordeddataintotextualform.?Inthepast,thissteprequiredextensiveworkinusingataperecorderandtranscriptionmachinetocontroltherecoding,butthisprocesshasbeenfacilitatedbyinnovationsintechnologythatautomaticallytranscribevarioustypesofrecordedmaterialsfrominterviews,focusgroups,andotherverbalexchanges.?DataanalysissoftwareapplicationssuchasCAQDAS,ATLAS.ti,NVivo,andEvaSysprovidesimpletranscriptionofthisverbaldatatotextualformwhereitcanthenbeorganizedasdescribedinstep2below.Step2:Organizethedata?Onceallverbaldatahasbeentranscribedintotextualform,itisessentialtoorganizethedataintomeaningfulthemesandpatterns.?Attemptingtoanalyzeunorganizeddatacaneasilyresultinmisperceptionsanderroneousconclusions.?Themoststraightforwardapproachtoorganizinglargeamountsoftextualdataisusingthestudy’sguidingresearchquestionandsubquestions.Wordtablesareusefulforthisorganizationalstep.Forinstance,theAmericanPsychologicalAssociation’sPublicationManualpointsoutthat,“Wordtablespresentqualitativecomparisonsordescriptiveinformation.Forexample,awordtablecanenablethereadertocomparecharacteristicsofstudiesinanarticlethatreviewsmanystudies,oritcanpresentquestionsandresponsesfromasurveyorshownanoutlineoftheelementsofatheory.Wordtablesillustratethediscussioninthetext”(2002,p.161).Step3:CodethedataThenextstepinthedataanalysisprocessrequiresdescriptivelycodingtheorganizeddatatoidentifykeythemes,patternsandprocessesthatarealignedwiththestudy’sguidingresearchquestionandsubquestions.Step4:ValidatethedataThepenultimatestepinthedataanalysisprocessinvolvesvalidatingthecollecteddatatoensuretheaccuracyandappropriatenessoftheresearchdesignandaswellastoimprovethereliabilityofthefindingsthatemergefromtheanalysis.Step5:ConclusionofdataanalysisThefinalstepinthedataanalysisprocessrequiresreiteratingtheguidingresearchquestionandsubquestionsandformulatingappropriateinformedandtimelyanswersaswellasidentifyinggapsintheexistingbodyofscholarshipthatrequireadditionalstudy.Source:AdaptedfrombyOnuoah(2017)unlessotherwiseindicatedLimitationsoftheStudyAlthoughtheresearchdesignisrobustandisintendedtocollectrelevantdatafromawiderangeofsourcestohelpimprovethetrustworthinessofthefindingsthatemergefromthedataanalysis,thereareseverallimitationstothestudyproposedhereinthatmustbetakenintoaccount.Whilehumansubjectsareinvolved,itisbelievedthattheproposedstudyposesonlyminimalornorisktoparticipantsandtherearenoethicalconsiderationsenvisioned.However,thereareminimalthreatsposedtothevalidityofthestudy.Threatstothevaliditywouldbetheabilitytoreceiveunadulteratedtruthandaccuracyofanswersfromtheteachers\'inputs.Therefore,tohelpsecuretruthandaccuracy,informedconsentandconfidentialityformswillbeprovidedtotheparticipantsforethicalconsiderations.Notwithstandingtheselimitations,theoverarchingaimofthisstudyistohelpeducationalleadersdeterminethebestpracticestohelpalternativelyandtraditionallycertifiedteacherimprovestudentoutcomes.Ifsuccessfullyimplemented,this,inturn,willpositivelyimpactteacherdevelopment,improveschoolcultureandreduceattritionrates,allofwhichimpactstudentoutcomes.SummaryThischapterprovidedadescriptionoftheproposedstudy’smethodology,includingitsresearchdesign,theparticipantsthatwillbeinvolved,thevariousinstrumentationthatwillbeusedforthedatacollection,andthedatacollectionprocess.Inaddition,adiscussionconcerningthedataanalysisstrategythatwillbeusedwasfollowedbyanassessmentoftheseverallimitationsthatareenvisionedasbeingrelevanttothestudyanditsintendedpurpose.
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