Classroom Management Theories and Application Research Paper

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fresh student groups enrolling in education, constant evolutions in student affairs systems are needed for meeting the unique requirements of students. Student affairs practitioners are required to make student transition easier through adoption of programs and policies that aid transition. Students face challenges when moving between educational levels. Recent literature has focused greatly on this topic, as transition is apparently related to 'mental health crises' among students (Eisner, 2011). Students unable to deal with such transition find it hard to complete their degrees/diplomas and achieve educational requirements for enjoying civic and economic security (Bonanni, 2015, p. 1-2; Conley, Kirsch, Dickson, & Bryant, 2014; Mattanah, Ayers, Brand, & Brooks, 2010; Eisner, 2011). Generally, educational institutions' environment, culture, expectations, and structure differ across the nation. But implementation of transition initiatives in school can promote student success. College and high school leaders can collaborate and aid student success. Systems and programs have been developed by educators for assisting students with transitions from secondary school to high school and from high school to college.

Numerous school advisory initiatives have been introduced across America for aiding students with transition. But McClure, Jones and Yonezawa (2010) have described typical program-related issues. Researchers have highlighted, in particular, many reasons for teacher resistance to advisory initiatives and for their eventual failure. They have revealed that a number of administrators might show disinterest; a majority of teachers lack adequate professional development or formal preparation to serve as advisors; and teachers have no time to make advisory plans and preferring devoting their time to preparing for lessons (Tocci, Hochman, & Allen, 2005). Other challenges to program success include: teacher preparation for the advisor role; time block creation for advisories; workload balancing for teachers; advisory program description and notification to parents; cultivation of parent, student and teacher input; and program model construction on the basis of scholarly reports and research (Brown & Anafara, 2001; Johnson, 2009). This paper discusses transition-related issues, reviews related literature, and provides recommendations.

Literature Review

Impact of transitional theories on School Advisory Program Practice

School advisors benefit from transitional theories in several ways. For example, Myrick (1990) observed three guidance approaches, (a) Prevention approach, whose basis is providing high-risk groups of students with special services; (b) Developmental approach, whose basis is individual needs as a response to cognitive development and stages of growth; and (c) crisis approach, in which advisors deal with problems as they surface. The developmental strategy must be adopted to formulate advisory programs. Using this approach, teachers meet needs that emerge as students grow and progress (cited in Ornum, 2014, p. 2).

Among numerous relevant transitional theories, the Role Acquisition Model is most applicable to the area of higher education. College accords students several opportunities to acquire strategies for successfully navigating the dynamic role acquisition process. Nardi and Thornton's model, which comprises four steps: anticipatory socialization, informal role expectation acquisition, formal role expectation acquisition, and personal role expectation development, can ease transition as well. But, Magolda's self-authorship theory is applicable as well, in comprehending role acquisition. The author studied developmental tasks of the 20s age-group, concentrating on ascertaining one's way across life and value exploration. She delineated four phases when defining self between the external and internal: formula adherence, crossroads, authoring one's own life, and one's internal foundation. Self-authorship and role acquisition theories may be applied to transition and career counseling in colleges/universities. (Kraus, 2012, pp. 15-17)

Similarly, socialization theory presented by Twale, Stein, and Weidman builds on Nardi and Thornton's model. It proposes a 4-step professional and graduate student socialization theory: anticipatory, personal, formal, and informal. At each step, students integrate further into college culture, assuming increasing responsibility with faculty involvement, research and mentoring other graduate pupils. The theorists address key socialization aspects linked to each phase. Beatrice Neugarten's work also helps in informing transition-related assistance. The author scrutinizes the significance of age as well as how age constitutes a key societal organizational dimension. People whose actions and behaviors do not conform to societal expectations and norms are regarded as "off-time" whereas conformists are "on-time." (Kraus, 2012, pp. 17-21)

Each of the aforementioned examples portrays practical models and theories applicable to student transition experiences, even very crucial and sensitive transitions to the after-education phase, overlooked by highest education advisors. These works indicate that student transition represents a process, and everybody must prepare for transitions in future. (Kraus, 2012, p. 25)

Issues in application of these transitional theories

While the aforementioned models are relevant to student transition, they do not completely apply to our subject of interest.

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Nardi and Thornton's theory also eases transition to the 'career phase' of life. Students can profit from ruminating on their new roles and realize that though preparation is essential, it won't necessarily further transition or role acquisition. Likewise, self-authorship theory explains young adult (20-40 years) experiences and hence, is suitable in understanding students about to move out of university/college, or even, perhaps, non-conventional students who choose to switch career/educational paths. (Kraus, 2012, pp. 15-17)

However, in socialization model's application, Twale, Stein and Weidman's dynamics, namely, diversity's effect, technology access, foreign students' experiences, and cultural impacts on professionalization, ethics, and professionalism, as must be considered in the course of critical thinking regarding socialization, may differ and lead to conflict between student groups, thus obstructing transition. Likewise, Neugarten's model applies aptly to non-conventional pupils, since where most higher education students traverse similar paths to graduation, the theory put forward by Neugarten unique implications for student parents, adult college-goers, and individuals with a disrupted high school-college path (e.g., students who might have suffered a traumatic life event or student veterans) (Kraus, 2012, pp. 17-21)

On the other hand, Schlossberg's model devoted to fathoming transition has garnered considerable regard and is employed in fields such as higher education, counseling, and rehabilitation. The theorist describes transition as an event/non-event leading to changes in relationships, roles, practices and assumptions. (Kraus, 2012, p. 20)

For making sense of student transition, Schlossberg recommends understanding its context, type, and impact. Transition may be non-anticipated (e.g., a parent's demise) or anticipated (e.g., college graduation), and may involve non-events as well. Both examples mentioned above initiate transition. However, the preparation and expectations for both events differ drastically. Non-events may be anticipated events that fail to take place (e.g., a student applies for a job but doesn't bag it). Events like graduating, college application, getting hired, relocating when switching jobs, etc. are really what define and shape the complex after-college transition process (Kraus, 2012, p. 20). It has been noted by Schlossberg and coworkers (2006) that transition extends over some time period, when a person moves from the preoccupation phase to the phase of integration with transition. Terms like "moving through," "moving out" and "moving in" benchmark the abovementioned advancement (Patton & Davis, 2014, p. 8).

Analysis of Schlossberg's Transitional Theory using peer-reviewed articles

Davis and Patton's research "Expanding Transition Theory: African-American Students' Multiple Transitions Following Hurricane Katrina" considers transition theory's reflection of how individuals making sense out of extraordinarily complex transitions, especially effects of the manifold transitions Afro-Americans experienced at the time of Hurricane Katrina. As mentioned previously, Schlossberg and colleagues (1995) identified three kinds of transitions: unanticipated, non-event, and anticipated. The foremost stage in transition deals with recognizing how it appears in a person's life. Transitions like childbirth and marriage that are anticipated encompass normative losses and gains or significant role alterations that take place predictably as one's life unfolds. Unanticipated transitions represent unscheduled and unpredictable events, normally of a negative nature and considered painful, crisis-like or unsettling (e.g., job loss, divorce, premature death in the family, etc.) Hurricane Katrina embodies an unanticipated kind of transition as well. Non-events constitute the third kind of transition; these denote anticipated changes that didn't occur (for instance, a cancelled wedding) (Patton & Davis, 2014, p. 8-9)

Study findings arose from a greater data set examining Afro-American's experiences with Hurricane Katrina. Selection of novel institutions (i.e., "moving in" assistance) constituted the foremost transition. Affected students claimed this phase encompasses leaving home institutions and seeking another. For instance, one student talked about his decision to enroll in a college near home and family. (Patton & Davis, 2014, p. 8-9)

Moving-through or adjustment to the new educational institution constitutes the next phase of transition. Three themes emerged as vital to interviewees' adjustment experiences in the new colleges they transferred to: 1) The feeling of being "dropped in" 2) Racial support/tensions and 3) below-par living conditions. As soon as they arrived at their new college/university, transfer students were "thrown into" institutional culture and systems with no assistance or orientation. Lastly, adjustment back to original institutions (moving out) constitutes the third transitional phase. As interviewees started moving out of these transitions post-Hurricane Katrina, they simultaneously "moved into" adjustments of return to familiar territory. They mostly have positive memories about their experiences upon return to their original institutions. One student claims he decided to return to his original college rather than remain at the transfer college mainly because he.....

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