The Rise of National Monarchies in England and France Essay

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Mongol Empire: Advantages and DisadvantagesTrade between the Far East and the Mediterranean world has ancient roots. Yet, it was only in the late th century that Europeans started forming direct trade links with China, India, and the famed Spice Islands of Indonesia. These connections had profound implications for European imagination and economic importance. However, a significant event for Asian populations was the emergence of the Mongol Empire, which made these connections possible (Coffin et al., 2019).The rapid expansion of the Mongol army and their conquest of vast Eurasian territories between 1206-1227 and 1229-1294 astonished the world. Historians and ethnologists continue to investigate the Mongols and their brief rule of today’s known world. Although Europe managed to recover from the turmoil through the Renaissance and the onset of the ‘Age of Exploration,’ the Muslim world suffered the most, never able to reclaim its lost ‘golden age.’ The Mongols instigated the continued non-unification of Muslim nations, implementing a divide-and-conquer strategy that left Muslims weak and increasingly dependent on stronger nations (Iqbal, 2021).Before the Mongols’ arrival, there were no apparent divisions between Sunni and Shiite Muslims. The fall of Baghdad marked the end of the Abbasid Caliphate and the ‘Golden Muslim Era.’ As a result, Shiites gained power, establishing the Safavid dynasty in central and northern Iran, extending to Basra and southern Iraq. A Shiite minister from the defeated Sunni caliph-Mutasim Billah, took control of Baghdad’s administration. The Mongol invaders ransacked and burned numerous universities, research centers, mosques, and public libraries, including the world-renowned Mustansiriya University of Baghdad, founded in 1204 (Iqbal, 2021).The upheaval persisted for centuries and remains today. The Mongol army conquered countless cities and villages, killing millions. Around 11% of the global population is estimated to die during or shortly after the Mongol invasions, totaling 60-80 million in Eurasia. Their goal was to rule over people worldwide with a vengeance, instilling fear or demonstrating terror often taking precedence, leading to widespread carnage. The Mongols fully comprehended terror’s power and painstakingly cultivated their image as ruthless killers, subjugating others (Iqbal, 2021).The Mongols also developed novel military technologies, giving them an advantage over their adversaries. They could move swiftly, launch unanticipated attacks, and vanish after inflicting severe casualties on their enemies. Such tactics were unfamiliar to Muslims, Christians, and other groups of the time. The Mongols gained control over the conquered societies’ political, economic, cultural, and religious aspects. Islam was distorted during Mongol rule, with many Mongol edicts replacing or altering original rules and rituals. The ‘Halal and Haram’ concept was abolished, forcing Muslims to adopt the Mongol animal slaughter and sacrifice system.

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Cole and Symes (2019) state, “An event of great agony is bearable only in the belief that it will bring about a better world. When it does not, as in the aftermath of another vast calamity, disillusion is deep and moves on to self-doubt and self-disgust.”Muslims faced greater oppression due to their stronger resistance than other religious factions. Nestorian Christians were favored by the Mongols and held higher positions in their administration during Genghis Khan’s reign. In contrast, well-educated and skilled Muslim nobles were disregarded and compelled to accept lower-ranking jobs. This persisted until the Mongols began converting to…

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…when the tide turned against the English, the resulting losses abroad eroded domestic support for the monarchy.Between 1307 and 1485, nine English kings ruled England, of which five were overthrown and killed by opposing factions. This instability stemmed from the unique nature of English kingship, which relied on the monarch’s ability to garner support through Parliament while also maintaining the loyalty of the nobility by waging successful wars. In England, failure to strike this balance proved more destabilizing than in other countries due to the centralization of royal power. In contrast, the French nobility could tolerate Charles VI’s madness, as his government lacked the power to threaten them. England, however, could not afford the inept reign of Henry VI, which resulted in an aristocratic uprising that escalated into the Wars of the Roses. This conflict, named by Sir Walter Scott (1771-1832) after the emblems of the rival noble families descended from Edward III (Lancaster and York), concluded when Lancastrian claimant Henry Tudor (r. 1485-1509) married Elizabeth of York, assumed the throne as Henry VII, and established the Tudor dynasty, symbolized by a rose with both white and red petals (Coffin et al., 2019).Though England ultimately faced defeat, the Hundred Years’ War reinforced the uniquely English association between national identity and the state’s authority. The growing anti-French sentiment also contributed to the English language triumphing over French for the first time since the Norman Conquest. With the loss of its continental territories, England transformed into a self-contained island nation, relying on the sea for protection and opportunity. This shift would prove advantageous in various ways (Coffin et al.,….....

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