Medieval Challenges in the Early Term Paper

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The representations to be found in literature are echoed in the history of medieval times, akin to art imitating life in the most literal sense. Before the emergence of the major dissenters who gained much ground in medieval times, the papacy fought against anticlerical dissent from many other sources as well. Much of this centered on allegations of corruption within the Catholic clergy and the perceived decadence of certain leaders. In part to reinvigorate the church, new monastic orders like the Benedictines and Franciscans were created. However, the papacy itself was more severely threatened by divisions over popes' elections. Secular rulers wanted greater influence over popes, and in the fourteenth century, there appeared a series of popes and "anti-popes," elected in disputed elections by rival factions of bishops. The church replied to secular rulers' efforts to sway papal elections by electing only Italians for next 450 years (Spielvogel).

Ultimately, the emergence of Martin Luther was inspired by the sale of papal indulgences to attack its practices; the church was forced to confront its practices, which had grown increasingly worldly. (This was especially true of Pope Leo X, whom Luther harshly criticized.) the church's Counter-Reformation included improved training for clerics, better administration and internal discipline, and increased popular piety. However, the papacy's political position was further undermined by the need to secure rulers' support against Protestantism's rising popularity. Christian monarchs and princes assumed greater control in the fight against heresy, which increasingly forced the papacy into a lesser role.

Ultimately, there were occurrences which led to the demise of papal authority to the extent that it had existed for centuries prior to medieval opposition. The inception of positive law was the last and final blow to the concept of religion. Positive law is fashioned and codified by man. The law has replaced the concept of morality. The framework which laws create makes the state and its sovereign powers legitimate and legal. States no longer operate in terms of what is just but on whether the legality for the action or jurisdiction has application.

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The evolution of the state and its sovereignty is clear. The Church once being a dominant political factor has been reduced to a mere whisper of advice. The influence of religion in instituting or in the elective process of choosing a representative ruler has been severely minimized. Sovereignty and the institution of the State have surpassed predestination and Divine Right of Kings.

Ultimately, the medieval challenges to papal supremacy came down to several major religious areas: internally, the church members and leadership, below the papal level of course, became increasingly vocal and active in the opposition to the power that the pope had accumulated over the generations, and how a given pope would mete out that power. Additionally, it was felt that the pope used this power for self enrichment and the accumulation of wealth, both of which were expressly forbidden in the most ancient traditions of the church itself. It is also not a far stretch, indeed a fact supported by secondary sources, that the pope committed assassinations against his opposition, through the guise of the Great Crusades. These killings were not the result of defense against armed aggressors, but rather, the wholesale extermination of those who ideologically disagreed with the pope and his organization, the church, much like a mob mentality.

The commoners outside of the church wished to be protected from intimidation into activities that they disagreed with from a moral and religious point-of-view. As people fought to gain freedom during this time, the church was opposed a foe much in the same way that an invading army would be.

Following the fight against papal supremacy, indeed, the role of the pope, and the future of the papacy would never be the same. This can be attributed to the challenges to papal sovereignty that emerged during the medieval era, and stands today as a pivotal event not only in church history, but in the history of western civilization as well.

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