Stress Reaction and Its Pathophysiology Research Paper

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Pathophysiology of Stress ReactionStress may be defined as the physiological reaction of the human body which acts as the mediation mechanism, connecting a particular stressor with its associated target- organ effect. In this paper, the physiological and anatomical bases of our body’s stress response will be described, within the bounds of historical bases and analyses, theories and latest research outcomes, through (1) tracing psychophysiological effector processes actually representing the above- defined stress response, and (2) dealing with fundamental neuroanatomical structures (Everly & Lating, 2012).Neurological FoundationsA grasp of the concept of stress response necessitates a discussion of its bases, residing in the nervous system’s function and structure. The nervous system’s fundamental functional units are called neurons (see Fig.1).Neurons, which conduct motor, regulatory and sensory signals all through the body, possess the following basic units: (1) dendrites and postsynaptic dendritic membranes; (2) axon presynaptic membranes (end points of the telodendria) and telodendria (the axon’s branching projections); and (3) the neuron’s cell body that contains the cell’s nucleus (Everly & Lating, 2012).Fig 1. A typical neuronNeural transmissionIncoming signals first reach postsynaptic dendritic membranes. When these membranes are stimulated, ionotropic (electrical) and metabotropic (chemical) processes commence, with the neuron conducting incoming signals via the cell’s body and the dendrites. Lastly, an impulse is transmitted to presynaptic membranes via the axon and telodendria. From here, the signal is conducted to the next neuron’s postsynaptic membrane, which is a complex task as neurons aren’t in actual physical contact with each other (Everly & Lating, 2012).Neurons are separated by a synaptic cleft, which may be traversed through the help of neurotransmitters. These chemicals that reside in the telodendria’s storage vesicles wait for the right cue before moving towards presynaptic membranes. After reaching there, they eventually discharge into synaptic clefts for inhibiting or stimulating the succeeding neuron’s postsynaptic membrane.The subsequent step in this study will be to analyze human stress reaction’s basic anatomical structures. The human body has two basic nervous systems, peripheral and central, which are functional structures that house several million neurons (see fig 2) (Everly & Lating, 2012).Fig 2. Nervous systemsThe central nervous system comprises of a ‘triune’ brain (with 3 functional levels) and spinal cord. The neo- cortex constitutes the brain’s highest and most complex level. Besides communication, interpreting and decoding sensory signals, and controlling overall musculoskeletal or motor behavior, the neo- cortex (especially its frontal lobe) controls imagination, memory, logic, planning, apprehension, decision making, and problem solving (Everly & Lating, 2012).The next functional level’s key element is the limbic brain, whose discussion is vital to the subject of stress, owing to its being the brain’s affective/ emotional control center. This system comprises several neural structures, including the hippocampus, hypothalamus, septum, amygdala, and cingulate gyrus. The pituitary (endocrine) gland has a key role in the limbic system (Everly & Lating, 2012).The peripheral nervous system (PNS) comprises all neurons excluding the central nervous system (CNS) and has two networks), namely autonomic and somatic nervous systems.

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The latter transfers motor and sensory signals between the PNS and CNS, innervating both the skeletal/ striate musculature and sensory organs. The PNS can, anatomically, be considered a CNS extension as the former’s functional control bases reside in the latter (Everly & Lating, 2012).Human stress reaction may be best understood by analyzing its dynamic “process”, which can be defined from a “system” standpoint, i.e., from the perspective of interlinked multidimensionality. Fig. 3 depicts the systems perspective that has undergone significant evolution of late and which bears upon the human stress reaction phenomenology. The model serves as the uniting theme, facilitating the attainment of better insights into human stress phenomenology as…

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…self- sustaining feedback loop (Everly & Lating, 2012).CopingThe term ‘coping’ may be described as: intra- psychic as well as action- oriented attempts at managing (or, in other words, mastering, reducing, minimizing or tolerating) internal and environmental demands, and the conflicts between them, that either stretch or go beyond the resources of an individual. The coping mechanism/ process may take place both before a stress- giving confrontation (this pre- event coping is known as anticipatory coping), and as a response to an earlier or a current harmful confrontation. From the point of view of the present model (Figure 3), coping might be regarded as cognitive or environmental techniques which aim at attenuating stress reaction. According to the model in question, coping is perceived to be residing after target- organ activation and physiological stress reaction. Therefore, coping may be viewed as a means of reestablishing homeostasis (Everly & Lating, 2012).Coping approaches may be both maladaptive and adaptive (Girdano et al., 2009). The former effectively decrease stress for the short run; however, they cause long- run health issues (for instance, drug/ alcohol misuse, interpersonal withdrawal, and cigarette smoking), whereas the latter coping approaches decrease stress whilst simultaneously promoting health in the long run (for instance, exercise, a proper diet, and relaxation) (Everly & Lating, 2012).Figure 3 echoes the view that effective coping leads to the reduction or elimination of extraordinary target organ activation and the re- establishment of homeostasis. In case the coping mechanisms prove unsuccessful, activation of target organ is maintained, with increased likelihood of development of disease associated with the target organ. Again, the feedback loops V & VI indicate the interrelationship between every element that is covered by Fig. 3. The model that Fig. 3 portrays is a reflection of the integration of critical thought and latest studies on the subject….....

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